New research published in journal personality and individual differences This suggests that people who experience psychological abuse in childhood tend to have lower relationship satisfaction as adults. The results of this study provide evidence that this decline in romantic well-being occurs because these people often have a reduced sense of belonging. This study suggests that addressing this sense of social connectedness may help heal long-term relationship wounds from early emotional abuse.
Past research has frequently investigated the effects of physical and sexual abuse on adult well-being. However, psychological abuse is often ignored in the scientific literature on relationship outcomes.
Psychological abuse involves a parent or caregiver repeatedly engaging in attitudes or behaviors that negatively impact a child’s development. This may include constant criticism, emotional manipulation, and intentional humiliation. Emotional abuse can have serious consequences because a child’s early bonds shape the way they view lifelong connections.
“My interest in this topic was shaped by the idea that early parent-child relationships can leave a lasting imprint on how people experience intimacy and satisfaction in their romantic lives as adults,” explains researcher Yakup Ymeh, associate professor of counseling psychology at Necmetin Erbakan University in Konya, Turkiye.
“Drawing from a psychoanalytic perspective, particularly Melanie Klein’s object relations framework and the attachment theory developed by John Bowlby, I was intrigued by how early experiences of psychological abuse can disrupt a sense of oneness with a partner,” Imeh told SciPost. A psychoanalytic perspective explores how unconscious thoughts and early childhood experiences shape behavior. Attachment theory focuses on how early bonds with caregivers create a blueprint for future relationships.
“These theoretical approaches suggest that internalized relationship patterns formed during childhood can influence emotional bonds in adulthood,” Imeh continued. “This perspective ultimately motivated me to explore a sense of belonging as an important mechanism linking early adversity and subsequent relationship satisfaction.” A sense of belonging refers to a person’s general feeling of being accepted, valued, and supported by others.
To explore these connections, researchers designed a longitudinal study. A longitudinal study is a research method in which the same population is observed repeatedly over a period of time. This approach allows scientists to track changes and establish a better sequence of events.
The sample included 346 young people attending universities in Turkiye. There were 213 women and 133 men in the group. Participants ranged in age from 20 to 36 years old, with an average age of approximately 25 years.
Data collection took place at two different time points separated by a 3-month interval. The first phase took place in February 2025, followed by the second phase in May 2025. Participants completed a printed survey form in person with a scientist.
To ensure privacy when matching the first and second surveys, participants provided pseudonyms. They also shared certain identifiers, such as the last three digits of their phone number or the last few letters of their parents’ names. This allowed researchers to accurately track individual responses over two time periods.
Participants completed three specific questionnaires. The first was a 12-item scale that asked individuals to rate the frequency of their parents’ abusive behavior during their childhood. Participants responded on a 4-point scale ranging from never to always.
The second measure was a 7-item scale that assessed how satisfied individuals were with their romantic relationships. Participants rated their satisfaction on a 7-point scale ranging from not at all satisfied to extremely satisfied. Finally, participants completed a 12-item questionnaire measuring feelings of social acceptance and rejection.
This finding suggests a negative relationship between early psychological abuse and adult relationship satisfaction. Those who reported higher levels of emotional abuse in childhood were more likely to report lower satisfaction in their romantic relationships. The data provide evidence that this connection is consistent over time.
Furthermore, researchers have found that a sense of belonging acts as a mediator of this power relationship. A mediator is a variable that describes the relationship between an initiating cause and its final effect. In this case, it would be predicted that childhood psychological abuse would lead to a decreased sense of belonging, which in turn would lead to decreased relationship satisfaction.
“The results did not surprise me. The findings seem to be consistent with existing theoretical frameworks and literature,” Imeh told SciPost. “However, this study clearly demonstrates and emphasizes the long-term impact that early psychological abuse has on feelings of belonging and relationship satisfaction in adulthood.”
“This study shows that psychological abuse experienced in childhood can lead to a lack of happiness and fulfillment in future romantic relationships,” Imeh explained. “The main reason for this is that the sense of ‘belonging’ and ‘being loved’ was damaged at an early age.”
“On the other hand, people who receive sufficient trust and consideration in childhood tend to be more trusting in their relationships and happier as adults,” Imeh added. “This is why it is so important that parents raise their children in a loving, safe and supportive environment. Avoiding all forms of neglect and abuse, especially during early childhood, greatly contributes to a child’s ability to form healthy and fulfilling relationships in the future.”
As with all studies, there are some limitations that should be considered. “One important limitation is that the data were collected longitudinally through participant self-report questionnaires, which could introduce bias,” Imeh explained. “In particular, responses may have been influenced by factors such as social desirability and subjective interpretation, which may affect the accuracy of the survey results.”
The interval between the two study periods is also relatively short at 3 months. Tracking these people over several years may reveal different patterns in how their relationship satisfaction changes. A longer observation period would provide more detailed information about these psychological changes.
The sample consists entirely of Turkiye university students. The cultural norms, family structure, and education system of this particular region may influence the results. Therefore, these findings may not fully apply to individuals from different cultural backgrounds or age groups.
“My long-term goal is to further investigate the mechanisms linking early psychological abuse and adult relationship outcomes by incorporating multi-method approaches (such as observational data and partner-reported data) to strengthen causal inferences,” Imeh said. “As a next step, we aim to explore potential protective factors, such as resilience and social support, that may buffer the negative effects of early adverse experiences on sense of belonging and relationship satisfaction.”
“Ultimately, this line of research may help develop targeted interventions to improve relationship well-being in individuals with a history of early psychological abuse,” Imeh concluded. Examining other variables such as self-esteem and interpersonal trust may also help explain how early psychological abuse affects adult romantic relationships.
The study, “How early psychological abuse predicts lower relationship satisfaction via sense of belonging in adulthood: A longitudinal study” was authored by Yakup İme.
