worldwide annual production Plastic usage is predicted to increase to 400 million tonnes in 2022 and double by 2050. Many of the products produced are used once and then thrown away, with more than 30 billion plastic bottles sold each year in the United States alone. Less than 10% of plastic waste is recycled.
It is clear that the problem of plastic pollution in terrestrial and marine environments is not going away. This series includes research into the increasing demand for single-use bottled water and considers several approaches to addressing it.
According to an industry survey released in 2024, a whopping 88% of Americans say they consume bottled water. In fact, that year we drank an estimated 16.4 billion gallons of bottled water. That’s a shocking average of 47.1 gallons, or about 340 bottles per person. The retail cost of all these bottles amounted to $50.6 billion.
But this habit comes with other costs. That is a serious impact on our health.
A recent study by Concordia University in Canada shows that people who drink bottled water ingest up to 90,000 more plastic particles per year than those who drink tap water. Microplastic particles range in size from 1 micron (1/1000th of a millimeter) to 5 millimeters. By the way, the thickness of a credit card is about 1 millimeter.
Even more concerning is another study that found larger amounts of nanoparticles in water bottles than previously reported. Nanoparticles are smaller than 1 micron.
A growing body of research suggests that exposure to these particles, especially nano-sized particles, can affect the immune system, cause reproductive problems, impair cognitive function, and increase cancer risk.
Why do we drink so much bottled water in the first place?
In a survey reported by Statista, consumers cited convenience, good taste, distrust of the quality of household water, non-compatibility of tap water, preference for sparkling or flavored water, and the fact that some bottled versions contain higher amounts of minerals.
Researchers at Canada’s University of Waterloo suggest that this choice also reflects something deeper: fear of death. Their 2018 paper argued that this fear makes us want to avoid risks, and that many people consider bottled water to be safer, purer, and more controlled.
The industry promotes this perception through celebrity-based marketing campaigns and feel-good imaging. According to Peter H. Glick, president emeritus and senior fellow at the Pacific Institute for Development, Environment, and Security and author of a 2010 book, some people are directly capitalizing on fears about the safety of their tap water and distrust of government institutions (think Flint, Michigan). Bottled and sold: The story behind the obsession with bottled water.
But is bottled water really safer than tap water?
Image by Wilson Blanco from Pixabay
In the United States, tap water is much more regulated than bottled water. The Environmental Protection Agency oversees municipal water systems, which must meet safety standards and are regularly inspected.
The water itself is treated to remove particles, chemicals, bacteria, and other contaminants and must be tested frequently. Water suppliers are required to provide test results to their customers annually in the form of a consumer confidence report, which is also published online.
The tap water system was not without its problems. A 1986 EPA report, “Reducing Lead in Drinking Water,” indicated that 36 million Americans use tap water with high levels of lead. Much of that exposure was from lead pipes in the home. Subsequent Congressional investigations and updates to the Safe Drinking Water Act fixed most of the problems, but not all (again, Flint).
Recently, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), known as the “forever chemicals,” have been discovered in water sources around the world. These chemicals break down very slowly and appear at low levels in the blood of humans and animals, as well as in various foods and soil. Research has linked exposure to some PFAS with harmful health effects.
In 2024, EPA adopted a national standard for acceptable levels of PFAs in tap water, requiring water utilities to test for PFAs through 2027. Test results will be used to determine future regulations regarding routine PFAS sampling and reporting, and starting in 2029, water utilities will be required to use treatment processes to remove PFAS from drinking water. Researchers are studying the effectiveness of various removal techniques.
Issues such as flooding or equipment failure can introduce pollutants and pathogens into city water supplies. Thankfully, we know about these incidents thanks to necessary testing. But hearing that story can raise doubts and cause people to switch to bottled water even if the water source is safe.
The Food and Drug Administration regulates bottled water, but only when sold across state lines. Eric Olson, senior strategic director for health at the Natural Resources Defense Council, said water packaged and sold within the origin makes up the bulk of the bottled water market. Each state is responsible for these products, but one in five states do not have regulations covering them, he added.
PFAS standards should also apply to bottled water, Olson said. “As far as we know, it hasn’t been applied. Most bottled water probably doesn’t contain PFAS. But how do we know?”
A study led by New York University researchers found that 93% of exposure to PFOA, one of the most widely studied PFAS, comes from plastics, including but not limited to water bottles.
NRDC also found that at least one sample of approximately 22% of the bottled water brands it tested contained levels of chemicals that exceeded state health standards or industry recommendations.
Ironically, an estimated 25-45% of bottled water is simply municipal tap water, which is repackaged, priced higher, and may or may not be further treated. For example, PepsiCo’s Aquafina and Coca-Cola’s Dasani are filtered tap water. Some brands, such as Smart Water, advertise that they use distillation to purify their water, but the process uses a lot of energy. Spring water typically requires minimal treatment, but may also be harvested from stressed natural spring waters. The process of bottling water can be wasteful. For example, it takes 1.63 liters of water to make 1 liter of Dasani.
Olson points out that manufacturing and shipping plastic bottles also uses large amounts of fossil fuels. “This is incredibly wasteful. Consuming tap water is more energy efficient and has a lower carbon footprint.”
Then there are those particles.
On April 2, the EPA announced plans to study microplastics and added them as a group of priority contaminants (along with pharmaceuticals as a group, 75 individual chemicals, and nine microorganisms) to a draft list under consideration for regulating drinking water. However, the agency underwent significant staffing and layoffs under the second Trump administration. The company is dispersing staff from the defunct Research and Development Office to other programs and faces a proposed 52% cut in its budget. Food and Water Watch, which advocates for safe food, water and climate change, warned that the announcement falls short of the comprehensive national monitoring program we really need.
In addition, this initiative addresses microplastics but not nanoplastics.
Dr. Sara Sajedi, co-author of the aforementioned particle study, conducted an experiment in which she found as many as 10 million nanoparticles in a 1-liter water bottle. The big concern, she says, is that these particles accumulate in human tissue. Nanoparticles can enter the bloodstream and reach vital organs, causing chronic inflammation, cellular oxidative stress, hormonal disruption, reproductive harm, neurological damage, and various types of cancer.
“Technology to detect nano-sized particles has only been available in the last three to five years,” Sajedi says. “First, you have to prove that there is an exposure. And now we have proven that there is an exposure with bottled water.”
Even more ironically, the particle problem got even worse when companies started using thinner plastics in water bottles to reduce plastic pollution.
Bottled water containers now use on average almost a third less PET plastic than other packaged beverages, such as soft drinks, which typically require thicker containers due to carbonation. However, these thinner bottles release more particles. Movement such as being carried and exposure to sunlight both increase particle emission.
“Exposure to UV light from shaking the bottle or leaving it in the car increases plastic delamination 10 times,” Sajedi says.
Improving the quality of the materials used in bottles will reduce exposure to particles, but will exacerbate the plastic waste problem. Glick’s book notes that people in the United States throw away 30 billion plastic bottles every year. Only a small percentage of it is recycled. Many end up in the environment, often in the ocean. The harm caused by this plastic pollution is well-documented, with the Paris-based Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development estimating its environmental damage at around $75 billion a year in 2018, and a 2025 study pegging health-related economic losses at more than $1.5 trillion a year.
Image by Hans from Pixabay
In general, the safest thing to do is to drink tap water, and unless there are special problems in your area, drink bottled water only in (rare) cases.
“Let’s say you’re watching a baseball game and there’s no drinking fountain,” Olson said. “There’s nothing wrong with eating once in a while. We’re just encouraging people to think about it.”
If you are concerned about your tap water, we recommend using a home filter system. The overall cost is significantly lower than a bottle. One example shows that a family of four could save $2,878 per year by using a pitcher-style filter system instead of bottled water.
“Another thing: don’t be fooled by the name or picture on the label that suggests the water comes from a mountain stream or a pristine spring,” says Olson. “If the label says it’s from a municipal water source, it’s probably untreated tap water because the regulations require it to say so.”
If you need to buy bottled water, Sajedi suggests buying a larger container. “Using a jug improves the quality of the plastic, which reduces exposure to particles.”
Water is an essential necessity for humans. While many of these issues are moot in places without reliable and safe water sources, experts argue that the solution lies in providing or improving infrastructure rather than relying on bottled water. But for the rest of us, it might be time to reevaluate our drinking habits.
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