A six-phase study using LH-based cycle tracking found that muscle strength and mood did not change synchronously across the menstrual cycle, suggesting that more individualized, cycle-aware methods may be needed for coaches to monitor readiness and performance.
Study: Effect of menstrual cycle on physical and psychological parameters of female athletes. Image credit: Dee-sign / Shutterstock
In a recent study published in the journal scientific reportGerman researchers investigated how six different stages of the menstrual cycle were associated with differences in physical fitness and psychological well-being in female athletes. The study sample included 18 normomenorrhagic women whose menstrual cycle phases were timed using a urinary luteinizing hormone (LH) ovulation test as a physiological anchor rather than complete hormonal profiling.
Comparing these phase-specific measurements with participants’ dynamic maximal muscle strength and psychological variables revealed that dynamic muscle strength peaked during the late follicular phase and ovulation, whereas mood and energy declined significantly during the late luteal phase. These findings suggest that more individualized cycle-oriented monitoring may be more useful than a one-size-fits-all training model to optimize training preparation and performance in female athletes.
Menstrual cycle and exercise training background
Decades of research have revealed that the human female menstrual cycle is a complex biological process regulated by multisystem interactions involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and ovary, and typically spans 26 to 32 days. McNulty et al. (2020) conceptualized a framework that divides this cycle into six distinct stages. 1. Early Follicular (EF), 2. Late Follicular (LF), 3. Ovulation (OV), 4. Early Luteal (EL), 5. Mid Luteal (ML), and Late Luteal (LL).
Subsequent studies established that these stages are characterized by dramatic hormonal fluctuations, primarily estrogen and progesterone, and significant stage-specific fluctuations in energy metabolism, neuromuscular activation, and central nervous system (CNS) excitability.
However, despite a recent surge in scientific studies investigating cycle-sensitive training, reviews on the subject highlight that current evidence remains heterogeneous due to methodological inconsistencies, such as small sample sizes and reliance on calendar-based phasing rather than biochemical confirmation. As a result, female athletes continue to undergo a “one-size-fits-all” athletic training model developed primarily based on research on men.
Biochemical studies have shown that estrogen primarily has excitatory effects on neural activity, and progesterone has inhibitory properties that can influence corticospinal excitability and intracortical inhibition, all of which are theoretically associated with changes in athletic performance, but scientists have yet to elucidate the role of these neuroendocrine mechanisms in the real-world context of the menstrual cycle, hindering the development of evidence-based strategies. Optimize performance for female athletes while reducing risk of injury.
Research design and measures for female athletes
The present study aimed to address this knowledge gap and inform training schedules for future female athletes by using a repeated measures research design with 18 physically active women (mean age = 23.6 years). Study participants were classified as “Tier 2” athletes (training volume ≥ 3 sessions per week).
To ensure high internal validity for each participant’s specific menstrual phase, we physiologically fixed time points for physical performance and psychological assays using a urinary luteinizing hormone (LH) ovulation test. However, because the researchers did not directly measure estradiol or progesterone, ovulation and luteal phase sufficiency were not confirmed biochemically.
This study used two main methods to assess physical performance. 1. Dynamic lower body muscle strength was measured using the half-squat 1-repetition maximum (1RM) test, and 2. General neuromuscular function was measured using the isometric handgrip test.
Psychological parameters were quantified using an abbreviated version of the Profile of Mood States (POMS-16), which summarizes energy, fatigue, depression, and anger. Subjective markers such as participants’ motivation and sleep quality were recorded via visual analogue scales (VAS). Finally, we used the Borg scale to estimate participants’ ratings of perceived exertion (RPE).
Findings regarding menstrual cycle strength and mood
Analysis of the studies revealed distinct trajectories that depend on the phase of the physical and psychological domains. Assessment of dynamic maximum muscle strength showed that participants’ performance peaked during the late follicular phase and during ovulation, highlighting a statistically significant “phase effect” (p < 0.001, η2p = 0.98). The authors cautioned that this unusually large effect size should be interpreted with caution.
Specifically, the study found that participants’ half-squat loads averaged 94.43 kg during the late follicular phase, compared to 87.24 kg during the late luteal phase. Unexpectedly, isometric grip strength was not consistent with these findings and instead peaked in the late luteal phase (p < 0.001, η2p = 0.21).
When evaluating psychological data, research analysis revealed that “vitality” (energy) is highest during the follicular phase but drops sharply towards the end of the cycle. In contrast, fatigue and depression scores were observed to follow opposite trends and increase significantly during the late luteal phase (p < 0.001).
Finally, this study identified a significant negative correlation between half-squat performance and depression scores (r = −0.60, p = 0.009), suggesting that higher depression scores were associated with poorer half-squat performance. However, this finding is based on correlation and does not establish causation. Other measured variables such as motivation, sleep quality, and RPE remained statistically stable throughout the study.
The impact of cycle-aware training on athletes
The study suggests that the menstrual cycle can affect both the body and mind of female athletes, but highlights that the effects are not uniform. Given the considerable individual differences observed, the researchers concluded that strict group-level training prescriptions were less effective than individualized load management.
Future athletic coaching will need to integrate a small number of informative markers of strength and fitness to adjust training loads based on the athlete’s current physiological and psychological readiness. The findings also support increased menstrual cycle literacy among athletes and support staff, while emphasizing that individual responses should take precedence over strict stage-based expectations.
Reference magazines:
- Niering, M., Schilling, V., Beurskens, R., and Seifert, J. (2026). Effect of menstrual cycle on physical and psychological parameters of female athletes. Scientific Reports, 16(1). DOI – 10.1038/s41598-026-47706-0. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-026-47706-0
