Recent research has investigated the role of past traumatic experiences and how people emotionally connect with others, as well as the consensual exchange of power during sex and the role of pain. This study shows that a history of childhood sexual abuse and certain unstable emotional patterns are associated with whether someone prefers a submissive or dominant sexual role. These initial results were published in the journal behavioral science.
To understand these connections, it is helpful to examine the framework surrounding bondage, discipline, domination, submission, and sadomasochism. This group of acts is commonly known by its early expression, BDSM. This practice involves a consensual exchange of power and the sensual expression of bodily sensations, including the reception or transmission of pain.
These operations typically have three main roles. The dominant partner takes over control, the submissive partner relinquishes control, and the “switch” flips between the two positions depending on the scenario. Consent is a fundamental requirement and completely distinguishes these acts from violence and assault. Communities around these practices often rely on established safety frameworks, such as strict principles of safe, sane, and consensual participation.
Historically, psychology and medicine viewed these behaviors as inherently problematic because early researchers based their theories on clinical or forensic populations where consent simply did not exist. This has distorted scientific understanding of alternative sexuality for decades. Today, major diagnostic classifications distinguish between atypical consensual sexuality and actual mental health disorders, and the latest research estimates that actual participation in these activities ranges from 20 to 30 percent of the general population.
Another fundamental concept in new research is attachment theory. Attachment theory explains how people form emotional bonds and points out how these patterns are formed from early interactions with parents and caregivers. The care a child receives creates a mental blueprint for how the child views themselves and others for the rest of their lives, and this blueprint continues to guide their interactions with adults.
Securely attached people feel secure in closeness and trust. They usually expect others to cooperate. In contrast, insecure attachment generally falls into three specific categories. Preoccupied people constantly seek approval and fear abandonment, negative people prefer extreme independence and don’t trust others and avoid intimacy, and fearful people seek emotional intimacy but distance themselves to avoid getting hurt.
Primorska University researchers Maja Selic and Vesna Jag conducted this study to examine how early adverse experiences shape both adult attachment and later sexual preferences. Previous literature has reported that survivors of childhood sexual abuse may report difficulties with emotional intimacy. Other historical data indicate high rates of participation in alternative sexual practices among trauma survivors.
Selich and Jag wanted to test how these factors relate to specific sexual dynamics in a modern context. They collected an online sample of 318 adult participants living in Slovenia. Participants completed a series of detailed questionnaires examining demographics, sexual orientation, living arrangements, and relationship status.
Participants also completed a series of standardized psychological questions. One study assessed everyday attachment styles as adults, and another assessed history of childhood sexual abuse. The third study assessed how often participants practiced and enjoyed submissive or dominant behaviors during sex. The researchers then analyzed the responses and found mathematical correlations between these life experiences.
The results revealed a clear link between early trauma and later sexual preference. Participants who reported childhood sexual abuse were more likely to practice and enjoy submission. Conversely, those with early trauma histories reported less involvement in and enjoyment of dominant roles.
The authors point out that while these numbers indicate a statistical association, they do not mean that past abuse naturally leads to an interest in alternative sexual practices. Many participants in the broader alternative sexuality community do not report a history of trauma. People engage in this behavior for a variety of reasons, including a search for identity, sensory enjoyment, and pure physical pleasure.
Attachment patterns are also consistent with specific sexual roles. Negative attachment styles were positively associated with engaging in and enjoying controlling behaviors. People who avoid emotional intimacy to protect themselves from vulnerability may feel safer when they have complete control over their physical situations.
On the other hand, a preoccupied attachment style was associated with a submissive attitude. People who frequently seek external validation may find satisfaction in relinquishing control. Following strict rules set by the dominant partner may provide temporary approval and a desired sense of relationship structure.
This study also assessed how early trauma is related to emotional bonding style. As expected, a history of childhood maltreatment was consistent with insecure attachment. Participants with early trauma histories scored higher on both fearful and preoccupied attachment patterns. The data showed no association between childhood trauma and negative attachment styles.
Demographic findings have challenged some traditional assumptions about gender and sexuality. Men in the sample reported engaging in and enjoying submissive roles more frequently than women. This is in contrast to the old societal stereotype that men naturally prefer dominant behavior, although men also reported higher levels of dominant behavior than women across analysis panels.
Other demographic variables also predicted engagement in substitutability dynamics. Individuals living in urban areas, older participants, and those who identified as bisexual or homosexual reported higher participation rates. People in open relationships engage in these behaviors more frequently than single or dating individuals.
Living in a rural area and being legally married were associated with lower participation rates. To reconfirm their findings, the researchers built a customized statistical model. They tested whether early trauma was a hidden reason why non-heterosexuals engage in these behaviors more often. This model indicates that early maltreatment does not play a mediating role, meaning that non-heterosexual orientation independently predicts higher participation rates.
The researchers acknowledge that their study has some limitations. Although this study was based on self-report data, asking people to recall childhood events can lead to memory errors, which can result in a biased or inaccurate representation of past events. Sample sizes were smaller for certain segments, such as asexuals and people who don’t fit into the traditional gender binary. Therefore, without large datasets, it becomes difficult to mathematically apply the results to those specific populations.
Researchers also did not screen for pre-existing mental health diagnoses. Conditions related to emotional regulation and posttraumatic stress can independently influence relationships and sexual behavior. Additionally, the survey removed questions about sexual fantasies to focus only on real-world behavior. Since fantasies play an important role in human sexuality, important psychological aspects are omitted.
The authors recommend future use of qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews, to understand the individual motivations behind these behaviors. People may seek specific drivers for personal growth, healing, and spiritual fulfillment. Examining how male participants specifically navigate submissive roles may also help illuminate the changing gender dynamics observed in contemporary times.
The study, “Childhood Sexual Abuse, Adult Attachment Styles, and Involvement in BDSM Practices in Adult Intimate Relationships” was authored by Maja Selič and Vesna Jug.
