Recent research published in journals psychology, crime, law suggest that certain deep psychological patterns, particularly feelings of entitlement and a desire to punish others, are associated with an interest in secretly removing a condom during sex. The findings provide evidence that targeted mental health interventions may help reduce this particular form of sexual violence by addressing dysfunctional thinking.
Nonconsensual condom removal, commonly known as stealth, occurs when a condom is secretly removed or damaged before or during sex, without the partner’s knowledge or consent. Because condom use represents a mutual agreement regarding sexual safety, secretly altering that agreement turns a consensual sexual encounter into an act of sexual violence.
“Not only does this breach consent, but it exposes victims to sexually transmitted diseases, unwanted pregnancies and lasting psychological distress,” said Andrew Allen, a clinical psychologist, member of the Sexual Violence Research and Prevention Unit and director of the University of the Sunshine Coast Psychology Clinic. Emotional effects on victims often include decreased sexual assertiveness and deep feelings of betrayal.
To better understand the cognitive factors behind this behavior, scientists are beginning to investigate the underlying psychological characteristics of the people who perform it. “Further research is essential as little is known about the psychological factors behind this crime,” Allen said.
The authors of the main study wanted to investigate how stealth is related to early maladaptive schemas. These schemas are deeply ingrained patterns of thinking and feeling that usually develop during childhood as a result of unmet emotional needs. These deep-rooted beliefs can lead to manipulative or harmful interpersonal behaviors later in life, as they serve as a lens through which individuals interpret the world.
Scientists often investigate broader categories of sexual coercion, such as reluctance to use condoms, before investigating extreme behaviors such as stealth. Resistance to condom use includes a variety of tactics, ranging from verbal persuasion to deception, used to avoid wearing a condom during sex. Although not all of these tactics are inherently violent, some men use aggressive or manipulative strategies that ignore their partner’s boundaries. The scientists designed the study to examine how deeply-rooted psychological schemas overlap with both general condom use reluctance and specific acts of stealth.
In the latest study, scientists recruited 106 men living in Australia to take part in a 20-minute online survey. Participants were between the ages of 19 and 68, with the majority identifying as heterosexual and currently in a monogamous relationship. To ensure the reliability of the data, the researchers included specific attention checks and removed incomplete responses. The study used a widely known psychological questionnaire to assess participants on 20 different early maladaptive schemas.
The men also answered questions about tactics they had used in the past to avoid wearing condoms. To gauge participants’ attitudes toward stealth without putting them in legal jeopardy, the researchers presented three hypothetical scenarios involving nonconsensual condom removal. One scenario involved simply removing the condom, the second was intentionally breaking the condom, and the third was continuing to have sex after the condom accidentally came off. Participants then rated their level of sexual arousal for these scenarios, as well as their intentions to engage in such acts.
The findings showed that men who have schemas of entitlement and grandiosity are highly susceptible to stealth scenarios. “The first is a sense of entitlement or grandiosity, or the belief that the rules don’t apply to you. And men who exhibited this pattern were more than three times more likely to report being agitated and intending to engage in stealth behavior,” Allen said. This result suggests that a sense of superiority may justify sexual access regardless of a partner’s autonomy.
Additionally, researchers observed a link between stealth arousal and another specific thought pattern. “The second is punitiveness, or the tendency to punish others for not following your wishes, which is associated with a lack of empathy and being critical,” Allen says.
In the context of a sexual encounter, this can manifest as a desire to secretly remove the condom as a form of covert retaliation against your partner. “We expected a finding regarding rights, but no previously documented punitive role suggests that some men may be drawn to (nonconsensual condom removal) as a form of retaliation against their partners,” Allen noted.
The study also found that men who had higher confidence in their ability to negotiate and properly put on a condom tended to report lower excitement about stealth scenarios. “Conversely, this study found that men who were confident in condom use were less likely to commit[nonconsensual condom removal],” Allen said. “This suggests that practical sexual health skills may reduce risk factors and increase partner safety.” Interventions that focus on healthy sexual communication may help counteract the negative effects of maladaptive schemas.
These findings are based on another recent study published in the journal psychology and sexualityconducted by the same authors in collaboration with the Cairn Miller Institute in Victoria. In that study, scientists investigated how stealth is associated with three dark personality traits, including narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Machiavellianism involves a manipulative and cynical worldview, while narcissism is characterized by grandiosity and arrogance. Psychopathy includes a lack of empathy, high impulsivity, and callous behavior toward others.
Researchers investigated whether these specific personality traits predicted a propensity to remove a condom without consent in 221 men. As in the new study, participants read hypothetical stealth scenarios and answered questions about arousal, past behavior, and future intentions. “We previously found a link between narcissism, psychopathy and stealth,” Allen said.
Psychopathy emerged as the strongest predictor of attempting to sneak off the condom. The scientists noted that the impulsivity and indifference to others associated with psychopathy closely match the coercive nature of stealth. Narcissism also plays a significant role in predicting these intentions, which is consistent with recent research findings on entitlement. “Essentially, all of these characteristics reinforce a consistent image of selfish beliefs and disregard for a partner’s autonomy, increasing the risk of crime,” Allen said.
Related research published in personality and individual differences We considered the broader concept of sexual deception. This includes the various ways people lie to secure sexual encounters. A team of scientists surveyed 1,769 adults, including men, women, and non-binary people, about their past use of deception tactics. Participants answered questions about their age, income, whether they had sexually transmitted diseases, and whether they had ever lied about the number of sexual partners they had.
The researchers found that although men and women engaged in sexual deception at overall rates, the specific themes they lied about tended to differ. Men were more likely to mislead potential partners about their wealth, occupation, and appearance. Both men and women frequently lied about the total number of past sexual partners, but a worrisome proportion admitted to lying about having been tested for sexually transmitted infections.
The study also found that participants from sexual minority groups sometimes lied about their sexual orientation, perhaps as a safety net to avoid prejudice or prejudice. Similar to research on stealth, this extensive research on sexual deception has identified specific personality traits associated with manipulative behavior. People with high levels of sexual narcissism and compulsive sexual behavior were more likely to use deceptive tactics to obtain sex. The authors suggest that people with strong sexual urges may feel that getting sex justifies the use of deception.
Although these studies provide detailed insight into the psychological mechanisms behind sexual deception and stealth behavior, there are some limitations that should be considered. Reliance on self-reported online surveys means that some participants may not have answered completely honestly. This is particularly relevant when asking individuals about highly stigmatized or illegal behavior, where people may underreport their true actions and intentions. Additionally, online data collection carries an inherent risk of participants misrepresenting themselves, even when attention checks are utilized.
The cross-sectional design of these studies also means that scientists can only observe associations at a single point in time. This makes it impossible to determine whether having certain personality traits directly causes a person to be stealthy or sexually deceitful. The sample sizes of initial stealth studies are also relatively small, which tends to limit the applicability of findings to the general population. There remains the possibility that systematic differences exist in unmeasured variables that were not captured by the survey.
Future studies may benefit from using larger, more diverse groups of people over longer periods of time. Scientists suggest that tracking behavior over time may help establish a more direct causal link between deep-seated personality schemas and sexual violence. Examining past instances of stealth behavior and deep-seated psychological beliefs may provide further insight into the predictors of this behavior. Providing financial incentives or offering shorter-term surveys may also help researchers recruit more diverse participants.
At the individual level, the current study indicates the need for clinical interventions specifically targeting rights-related beliefs. “Psychological treatment programs may specifically address these two cognitive patterns, while community prevention efforts may include these cognitive patterns in consent education and challenging unhealthy gender norms,” Allen said. Supporting healthy relationships and long-term behavior change will require addressing the broader cultural norms that enable sexual coercion.
The study, “The relationship between early maladaptive schemas and nonconsensual condom removal in an Australian sample,” was authored by Andrew Allen, Talia Brown, and Jonathan Mason.
The study, “Exploring the relationship between nonconsensual condom removal and the dark triad of personality traits,” was authored by Timothy SP Cousins, Andrew Allen, and Jonathan Mason.
The study, “Blatant Sexual Deception: Content, Individual Differences, and Impact,” was authored by Flora Oswald, Devinder Khera, Kari A. Walton, and Corey L. Pedersen.
