A new study published in Applied Economics Letters suggests that deep-rooted cultural beliefs about class and gender roles can prevent highly educated women from fully participating in the workforce. The findings show that in societies that value rigid social hierarchies, even advanced education for women does not help close the economic gender gap. These cultural barriers tend to overwhelm the normal career benefits of a good education.
Scholars continue to document that gender inequality in the workplace remains a persistent global problem. According to a United Nations report cited in the study, no country has achieved full gender equality, and an astonishing 90 percent of people around the world harbor some form of prejudice against women. Inequalities in economic rewards are significant, as women tend to earn less than men around the world. Even in developed countries like the United States, women earn about 84 cents for every dollar paid to men.
This disparity persists even at higher academic achievement levels. For example, women with a bachelor’s degree earn significantly lower median weekly earnings than men with the exact same education. The researchers highlight data from Barclays International, which reports that the average gender pay gap is 48 percent, rising to 79 percent when financial bonuses are included.
Gender disparities tend to worsen as individuals move up the corporate ladder. Women are often assigned lower paid and less prestigious roles, while men are promoted at much higher rates. According to a business report cited by the authors, for every 100 women promoted, about 130 men are promoted. Researchers note that many women also face penalties from motherhood. This occurs when women reduce their working hours or miss out on promotions to meet family responsibilities.
Education is widely considered to be a key tool for leveling the playing field. In theory, if women have the same knowledge and technical skills as men, they should have equal opportunities for career advancement. Education serves as a strong indicator of an individual’s problem-solving ability and provides access to professional networks. It also builds confidence and allows women to negotiate for better positions.
To understand why education may not be able to bridge this gap, Muge Yaira of the University of Texas at San Antonio and A. Meri Kull of Florida Southern College investigated the role of national culture. They suspected that deeply ingrained social norms may limit women’s ability to leverage their academic achievements in the labor market. These norms are often internalized from an early age through family structure and actively shape hiring practices.
The authors based their study on established psychological frameworks that measure different cultural dimensions between countries. The framework originally emerged from an extensive survey of corporate employees in more than 50 countries. It provides a standardized score of cultural values and allows researchers to compare social norms on a global scale. Specifically, the researchers focused on a cultural trait known as power distance.
Power distance refers to the extent to which vulnerable members of society accept and expect power to be distributed unequally. In countries with high power distance, people tend to accept strict hierarchies in which everyone has a designated place without the need for justification. In these cultures, authority is based on tradition and workplace decisions are concentrated at the top, with older men usually holding the most power. Researchers theorized that these rigid power structures create a work environment in which women are disproportionately affected by power imbalances.
The researchers also looked at a second cultural dimension called masculinity. In the context of cultural studies, highly masculine societies are those that emphasize competitiveness, achievement, and distinct traditional gender roles. Less masculine societies, often referred to as feminine cultures, tend to emphasize cooperation, nurturing, and social equality.
Yaira and Kuru wanted to know how these two cultural dimensions interact with educational attainment and influence women’s economic opportunities. They reasoned that in highly hierarchical and traditional societies where men occupy dominant roles, formal education can lose its power as an equalizing force.
To explore these dynamics, researchers analyzed data from 144 countries. They collected social norms data using established global databases and scored countries on a scale of 0 to 100 on various cultural dimensions.
As a measure of workplace inequality, we used the Global Gender Gap Index published by the World Economic Forum. This comprehensive index assesses differences between men and women across four key areas, including educational attainment, health and survival, political empowerment, and economic opportunity. The researchers focused specifically on economic participation and opportunity scores. The indicator collects data on labor force participation, pay equity, income levels and the number of women in senior management positions.
The authors intentionally used 2017 data to conduct their analysis. They chose this year to avoid the massive labor market disruption caused by the global pandemic. This disruption disproportionately pushes women out of the workforce due to increased caregiving responsibilities. Using this timeline, we were able to observe long-term cultural influences during a period of relative global economic stability.
To ensure the results were accurate, the researchers also controlled for each country’s wealth using gross domestic product per capita. This step prevents differences in underlying economic development from skewing the results. Wealthy countries typically have more resources to invest in social programs and enforce anti-discrimination laws. The final statistical model included data from 94 to 140 countries, depending on the availability of complete information across all required variables.
Statistical analysis provides evidence that women’s economic participation is significantly lower in countries with high power distance. Specifically, the model predicts that for every 60 point increase in a country’s power distance score, women’s economic participation decreases by approximately 8.5 percentage points. Where rigid social hierarchies are accepted as natural, inclusive economic opportunities for women are greatly reduced.
When the researchers looked at educational attainment alone, they found that it did not have a direct and universal impact on closing the gender gap in all countries. Rather, the benefits of education were highly dependent on a country’s level of power distance.
In countries with low power distance, higher educational attainment was associated with greater women’s economic participation. In these more egalitarian societies, the labor market highly rewards women with higher degrees. Paths to promotion are generally based on merit, making them much more accessible for highly educated women.
As power distance increases, the positive association between education and economic participation begins to fade. In countries with very high power distance scores, typically above 80 out of 100, the career benefits of education are completely eliminated for women. In some of these highly hierarchical settings, additional education actually showed a slightly negative relationship with women’s economic participation.
Researchers suggest that in these high-power distance societies, deeply ingrained hierarchical norms prevent educated women from leveraging their qualifications. Even with advanced degrees, women face structural barriers and traditionalist mindsets that keep decision-making power concentrated in the hands of men. Older leaders in these societies are more likely to support traditional gender roles and resist reforms that promote equity.
The authors also found that a country’s level of masculinity plays a major role in this dynamic. In highly masculine societies, the interaction between power distance and education remains strong. The rigid adherence to traditional gender roles in these cultures amplifies the structural barriers faced by educated women. These societies tend to reinforce the idea of the male breadwinner, making it extremely difficult for women to enter the workforce.
In contrast, societies with low masculinity scores showed a very different pattern. In these more cooperative cultures, neither power distance nor educational attainment had a statistically significant effect on women’s economic participation. Researchers say these women’s societies tend to prioritize social welfare, parental leave, and gender equality policies, potentially overcoming educational and class barriers.
Although the study provides evidence that cultural norms shape women’s economic outcomes, the authors note some limitations in the study of women. Because the data used in the analysis is correlational, it cannot be conclusively proven that cultural characteristics are responsible for the growing gender gap. Although the theoretical framework strongly suggests that these cultural dimensions act as structural barriers to workplace equality, other variables may be at play.
Another limitation is the use of an aggregate index to measure economic participation. A single national score can mask differences that exist within specific regions of a specific country or within specific industries. Additionally, the index focuses on formal employment and does not take into account the informal and unpaid care work that constitutes a large part of women’s daily activities in many parts of the world.
The researchers recommend that future research examine other institutional factors that may interact with education, such as specific legal rights and the quality of government institutions. We also suggest the use of longitudinal data to track changes over time. This approach could help scientists determine whether changes in cultural attitudes will ultimately lead to narrowing the gender gap.
From a practical perspective, the authors advise that multinational companies should adjust their business strategies based on local culture. In a highly masculine and hierarchical society, companies must intentionally dismantle rigid hierarchies and create transparent pathways for advancement. In societies with strict class systems but less emphasis on traditional male competition, creating mentorship programs and flexible work arrangements could help educated women reach their full potential.
The study, “Power Distance and Gender Gap in Economic Participation: The Role of Education and Masculinity,” was authored by Muge Yaira and A. Melih Krull.
